介绍一下美国黄石公园

美国， 横跨怀俄明、蒙大拿和爱达荷三州， 公园主要分布于怀俄明州(占96%)，少部分分布在蒙大拿州与爱达荷州

成立时间：1872年，1972年被列入国际生物圈保留区，1978年被列入世界遗产。

面积：2,219,791英亩(换算成公制将约为8,889平方公里，几乎是台湾总面积的四分之一大)

特色：全球第一座国家公园，丰富的火山地质景观，如间歇泉、硫磺池、火山泥流。

成立于1872年3月1日的黄石国家公园，至今已有131年历史，是美国也是全世界第一个成立的国家公园；而且，透过民间保育团体的努力，整个保护区域仍持续在扩大当中。

1807年，第一位见证黄石公园壮丽警官的白人考尔特(John Colter)为了探寻印地安文化而进入此区，随后，考尔特的见闻披露后，吸引众多探险家进入探勘，黄石地区的保护问题也因而引起美国保育界的关注。1871年，为了游说国会立法保护，海顿博士(Dr. Ferdirand V. Hayden)组成官方探险队进行大规模的资料搜集工作；于是，国会在1872年通过黄石国家公园法案，并由当时的总统格兰特(Ulyess S. Grant)签署成立。

黄石公园被誉为‘世界上最著名的野生动植物庇护所’，境内栖息的野生动物种类如麋鹿、北美郊狼(coyote)、狼獾(wolverine)等等族繁不及备载，其中包含两种名列联邦保护的濒危物种：灰狼与吼鹤(whooping crane)，以及三种受威胁物种：灰熊、白头海雕与山猫。此外，黄石公园也是全美国仅存一处仍有美洲野牛(bison)徜徉其中的场所。它是整个‘大黄石生态系’的核心地区，而‘大黄石生态系’是地球上保存最完整、面积最大的温带生态系。

黄石公园既是一个象征，又是一处圣地——这个冰火磨砺的世界，这个犬牙交错的幻境，延生于近两百万年前的一次火山爆发，至今仍未停止。这是美国乃至世界上第一个国家公园，也是美国目前36座国家公园中最著名的一个。它面积达7988平方公里，99%都尚未开发，这是一片广袤而洁净的原始自然区，分布在洛基山脉的最高峰，丰沛的雨水和降雪，使这里成为美国众多大河的发源地。

穆尔被称为荒野哲人及美国国家公园之父，开启了人类内心对野生荒地的新发现。这是人类承先启后走向保护自然的里程碑。

最后的野牛聚集在黄石公园，在这里它们总算能避开猎人的枪口。1880年，全美境内仅有位于蒙大拿州莫伊斯镇的国家野牛保护区及黄石公园还有少数的野牛生存，总数不过一百多头。

黄石最后的狼在1924年被杀，两只小狼就在苏打岗被射杀。黄石的生态平衡因而遭到了严重破坏。原本鼓励此事的生物学家，经过了数十年的光阴，才了解他们所犯的错误，1973年，灰狼终于受到濒临绝种动物法案的保护。经过漫长而激烈的争议，1995年1月，14只在加拿大阿尔伯塔省捕获的狼被送往黄石。到1998年底，黄石至少已有了120只狼。经过数世纪不公平地把狼当做魔鬼动物后，我们似乎终于准备好把它们当作落基山的永久居民，以及荒野的永久象征，来拥抱它们。

濒危动物 Endangered species

An endangered species is a population of an organism (usually a taxonomic species), which because it is either (a) few in number or (b) threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters, is at risk of becoming extinct. Many countries have laws offering special protection to these species or their habitats: for example, forbidding hunting, restricting land development or creating preserves. Only a few of the many endangered species actually make it to the lists and obtain legal protection. Many more species become extinct, or potentially will become extinct, without gaining public notice.

The greatest factor of concern is the rate at which species are becoming extinct within the last 150 years. While species have evolved and become extinct on a regular basis for the last several hundred million years, the number of species becoming extinct since the Industrial Revolution has no precedent in biological history. If this rate of extinction continues, or accelerates as now seems to be the case, the number of species becoming extinct in the next decade could number in the millions[1]. While most people readily relate to endangerment of large mammals or birdlife, some of the greatest ecological issues are the threats to stability of whole ecosystems if key species vanish at any level of the food chain.

Species extinction is the ultimate concern, but there are four different reasons to have for concern with this outcome:

Loss of a species as a biological entity;

destabilization of an ecosystem;

endangerment of other species;

loss of irreplaceable genetic material and associated biochemicals.

The loss of a species in and of itself is an important factor, both as diminution of the enjoyment of nature and as a moral issue for those who believe humans are stewards of the natural environment. Destabilization is a well understood outcome, when an element of food or predation is removed from an ecosystem. Examples abound that other species are in turn affected, such that population increases or declines are forthcoming in these secondary species. Marked change or an unstable spiral can ensue, until other species are lost and the ecosystem structure is changed markedly and irreversibly.

The fourth outcome is more subtle, but perhaps the most important point for mankind to grasp. Each species carries unique genetic material in its DNA and in its chemical factory responding to these genetic instructions. For example, in the valleys of central China, a fernlike weed called sweet wormwood grows, that is the only source of artemisinin, a drug that is nearly 100 percent effective against malaria (Jonietz, 2006). If this plant were lost to extinction, then the ability to control malaria, even today a potent killer, would diminish. There are countless other examples of chemicals unique to a certain species, whose only source is the species, whose genetic factory makes that given substance. How many further chemicals have not yet been discovered and could vanish from the planet when further species become extinct cannot be determined, but it is a highly debated and influential point.

Though extinction can be a natural effect of the process of natural selection, the current extinction crisis is not related to that process. At the present, the Earth has fallen from a peak of biodiversity[1] and Earth is undergoing the Holocene mass extinction period.[2] These periods have occurred before without human intervention; however the current extinction period is unique. Previous periods were triggered by physical causes, such as meteorite collision and volcanic eruption, all leading to climate change. The current extinction period is being caused by humans and began approximately 100,000 years ago with the diaspora of humans to different parts the world. By entering new ecosystems which had never before experienced the human presence, humans disrupted the ecological balance by hunting and also possibly bringing disease. From this time up to approximately 10,000 years ago is known as "phase one" of the sixth extinction period.

Phase two of the period began approximately 10,000 years ago with the birth of agriculture. With the birth of agriculture, humans did not have to rely on interaction with other species for survival and so could begin to domesticate them, and they also did not have to adhere to the limitations of the ecosystem's carrying capacity. Thus, humans became the first species able to live outside local ecosystems. As Niles Eldridge says "Indeed, to develop agriculture is essentially to declare war on ecosystems - converting land to produce one or two food crops, with all other native plant species all now classified as unwanted "weeds" -- and all but a few domesticated species of animals now considered as pests."[3] With the ability to live outside of a local ecosystem, humans have been free to breech the "carrying-capacity" of areas and overpopulate, putting ever more stress on the environment with destructive activities necessary for more population growth. Today, those activities include tropical deforestation, coral loss, other habitat destruction, overexploitation of species, introduction of alien species into ecosystems and pollution (such as soil contamination and greenhouse gases).

[edit] Conservation status

The conservation status of a species is an indicator of the likelihood of that endangered species continuing to survive. Many factors are taken into account when assessing the conservation status of a species; not simply the number remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, known threats, and so on. In many areas this is referred to as a red-listed species. Internationally, 189 countries have signed an accord agreeing to create Biodiversity Action Plans to protect endangered and other threatened species. In the USA this plan is usually called a species Recovery Plan.

The best-known worldwide conservation status listing is the IUCN Red List, but many more specialized lists exist. The following conservation status categories are used in articles in this encyclopedia. They are loosely based on the IUCN categories.

Extinct: the last remaining member of the species had died, or is presumed beyond reasonable doubt to have died. Examples: Thylacine, Dodo, Passenger Pigeon.

Extinct in the wild: captive individuals survive, but there is no free-living, natural population. Examples: Dromedary.

Critical or critically endangered: faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate future. Examples: Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Arakan Forest Turtle

Endangered: faces a very high risk of extinction in the near future. Examples: Blue Whale, Snow Leopard, Kings holly

Vulnerable: faces a high risk of extinction in the medium-term. Examples: Cheetah, Bactrian Camel

Secure or lower risk: no immediate threat to the survival of the species. Examples: Norway Rat, Nootka Cypress, Llama

The following lists are examples of endangered species. It is important to stress that the following lists are a miniscule fraction of the total endangered species. It is also worth noting that the number of species becoming extinct each year is many times as large as the number of species classified as endangered; this fact arises from the extensive and slow review process for listing new species as endangered. It also arises from the voluminous number of yearly extinctions, often for species about which little documentation exists. Note that because of varying standards for regarding a species as endangered, and the very large number of endangered species, these lists should not be regarded as comprehensive. neha

[edit] Endangered mammals

The endangered Island FoxThe following list is a very small fraction of known endangered mammals:

Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus)

Aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis)

Banteng (Bos javanicus)

Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis)

Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)

Black-footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes)

Black-tailed Prairie Dog (Cynomys ludovicianus)

Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus)

Bonobo (Pan paniscus)

Bornean Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)

Bowhead Whale (Balaena mysticetus)

Brazilian Sloth (Bradypus torquatus)

Burrowing Bettong (Bettongia lesueur nova)

Common Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)

Chinese River Dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer) and other river dolphins

Diademed Sifaka (Propithecus diadema)

Eastern Gorilla (Gorilla beringei)

The endangered Sea OtterFin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus)

Forest Elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis)

Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox)

Gelada (Theropithecus gelada)

Giant golden-crowned flying fox (Acerodon jubatus)

Giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis)

Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)

Giant Pangolin (Manis gigantea)

Giant Sable Antelope (Hippotragus niger varani)

Golden Lion Tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia)

Gray Bat (Myotis grisescens)

Hawaiian Monk Seal (Monachus schauinslandi)

Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)

Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus)

Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata)

Indri (Indri indri)

Island Fox (Urocyon littoralis)

Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)

Humpback WhaleKey Deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium)

Kouprey (Bos sauveli)

Leopard (Panthera pardus)

Mahogany Glider (Petaurus gracilis)

Mountain Pygmy Possum (Burramys parvus)

Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat (Lasiorhinus krefftii)

Numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus)

Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis)

Père David's Deer (Elaphurus davidianus)

Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus)

Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens)

Red Wolf (Canis rufus)

American bison skull heap. There were as few as 750 bison in 1890 from overhunting.Savannah Elephant (Loxodonta africana)

Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris)

Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis)

Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia)

Steller's Sea Lion (Eumetopias jubatus)

Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo abelii)

Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)

Temminck's Pangolin (Manis temminckii)

Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii)

Tiger (Panthera tigris)

Timber Wolf (Canis lupus)

Vaquita (Phocoena sinus)

Western Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla)

West Indian Manatee (Trichechus manatus)

Wolverine (Gulo gulo)

[edit] Endangered birds

Immature California CondorAlaotra Grebe (Tachybaptus rufolavatus)

Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus)

Amami Thrush (Zoothera major)

Amsterdam Albatross (Diomedea amsterdamensis)

Attwater's prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri)

Bali Starling (Leucospar rothschildi)

Black-capped Petrel (Pterodroma hasitata)

Bornean Peacock Pheasant (Polyplectron schleiermacheri)

Brazilian Merganser (Mergus octosetaceus)

California Clapper Rail (Rallus longirostris obsoletus)

California Least Tern (Sterna antillarum browni)

California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus)

Chatham Albatross (Thalassarche eremita)

Chinese Crested Tern (Sterna bernsteinii)

Christmas Island Frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi)

Cozumel Thrasher (Toxostoma guttatum)

Crested Ibis (Nipponia nippon)

Eskimo Curlew (Numenius borealis)

Giant Ibis (Thaumatibis gigantea)

Glaucous Macaw (Anodorhynchus glaucus)

Guam Rail (Gallirallus owstoni)

Gurney's Pitta (Pitta gurneyi)

Hawaiian Crow (Corvus hawaiiensis)

Hawaiian Goose or Néné (Branta sandvicensis)

Imperial Woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis)

Indian White-rumped Vulture (Gyps bengalensis)

Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis)

Jerdon's Courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus)

Junin Flightless Grebe (Podiceps taczanowskii)

Kagu (Rhynochetos jubatus)

Kakapo (Strigops habroptilus)

Kittlitz's Murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris)

Kiwi (Apteryx australis, A. hastii, A. owenii)

Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis)

Lear's Macaw (Anodorhynchus leari)

Long-billed Vulture (Gyps indicus)

Magdalena Tinamou (Crypturellus saltuarius)

Magenta Petrel (Pterodroma magentae)

Maleo (Macrocephalon maleo)

Mauritius Fody (Foudia rubra)

Mauritius Parakeet (Psittacula eques)

Mindoro Bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba platenae)

New Zealand Storm-petrel (Oceanites maorianus)

Night Parrot (Geopsittacus occidentalis)

Northern Bald Ibis (Geronticus eremita)

Okinawa Woodpecker (Sapheopipo noguchii)

Orange-bellied Parrot (Neophema chrysogaster)

Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi)

Po'ouli (Melamprosops phaeosoma)

Puerto Rican Parrot (Amazona vittata)

Raso Skylark (Alauda razae)

Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis)

Red-vented Cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia)

Ridgway's Hawk (Buteo ridgwayi)

S?o Tomé Grosbeak (Neospiza concolor)

Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus)

Slender-billed Curlew (Numenius tenuirostris)

Socorro Mockingbird (Mimodes graysoni)

Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarius)

Spix's Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii)

Sumatran Ground Cuckoo (Carpococcyx viridis)

Takahe (Porphyrio hochstetteri)

West Indian Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna arborea)

White-headed Duck (Oxyura leucocephala)

White-shouldered Ibis (Pseudibis davisoni)

Whooping Crane (Grus americana)

Writhed-billed Hornbill (Aceros waldeni)

Yellow-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea)

Zino's Petrel (Pterodroma madeira)

[edit] Endangered reptiles

Loggerhead Sea TurtleAntigua Ground Lizard (Ameiva griswoldi)

Antigua Racer Snake (Alsophis antiguae)

Blunt-nosed Leopard Lizard (Gambelia silus)

Burmese Star Tortoise (Geochelone platynota)

Californian Walking Bird (Augusto squamish)

Coachella Valley Fringe-toed Lizard (Uma inornata)

Cuban Crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer)

Flat Back Turtle (Natator depressa)

Grand Skink (Oligosoma grande)

Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas)

Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata)

Island Night Lizard (Xantusia riversiana)

Kemp's Ridley (Lepidochelys kempii)

Komodo Dragon (Varanus komodoensis)

Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)

Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta)

Mesoamerican River Turtle (Dermatemys mawii)

Mona Ground Iguana (Cyclura stejnegeri)

Monito Gecko (Sphaerodactylus micropithecus)

Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea)

Otago Skink (Oligosoma otagense)

San Francisco garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia)

Smith's Dwarf Chameleon (Bradypodion taeniabronchum)

St. Croix Ground Lizard (Ameiva polops)

[edit] Endangered amphibians

Santa Cruz Long-toed Salamander (photo courtesy of Don Roberson)Arroyo toad (Bufo californicus (=microscaphus))

Australian Lace-lid (Nyctimystes dayi)

Barton Springs Salamander (Eurycea sosorum)

Baw Baw Frog (Philoria frosti)

California Tiger Salamander (Ambystoma californiense)

Desert Slender Salamander (Batrachoseps aridus)

Fleischmann's Glass Frog (Hyalinobatrachium fleischmanni)

Houston toad (Bufo houstonensis)

Italian Spade-footed Toad (Pelobates fuscus insubricus)

Mississippi Gopher Frog (Rana capito sevosa)

Mountain Yellow-legged Frog (Rana muscosa)

Palmate Newt (Triturus helvetica)

Santa Cruz Long-toed Salamander (Ambystoma macrodactylum croceum)

Shenandoah Salamander (Plethodon shenandoah)

Sonoran Tiger Salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi)

Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria Spenceri)

Texas Blind Salamander (Eurycea rathbuni)

Wallum Sedge Frog (Litoria olongburensis)

Wyoming Toad ( Bufo baxteri (=hemiophrys))

[edit] Endangered fish

An Asian arowanaAsian arowana (Scleropages formosus)

Bonytail (Gila elegans)

Chinese paddlefish (Psephurus gladius)

Coelacanth (Coelacanthiformes)

Colorado pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus lucius)

Cui-ui (Chasmistes cujus)

Dwarf Pygmy Goby (Pandaka pygmae)

Gambusia eurystoma, native to Mexico, due to very limited habitat

Humpback chub (Gila cypha)

June sucker (Chasmistes liorus)

Moapa dace (Moapa coriacea)

Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus)

Virgin River chub (Gila seminuda)

[edit] Endangered arthropods

Alabama cave shrimp (Palaemonias alabamae)

Delhi Sands flower-loving fly (Rhaphiomidas terminatus abdominalis), due to severely limited range of habitat and development

Kentucky cave shrimp (Palaemonias ganteri)

San Bruno elfin butterfly (Incisalia mossii bayensis), due to limited range of habitat and development encroachment

Spruce-fir moss spider (Microhexura montivaga)

Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish (Astacopsis gouldi)

Tooth cave spider (Neoleptoneta myopica)

White-clawed crayfish (Austropotamobius pallipes)

百科狗 baikegou.com